Looking At Elderly Abuse In Developed Countries Social Work Essay

Looking At Elderly Abuse In Developed Countries Social Work Essay As the population continues to age, it is becoming increasingly important to focus on policies and practices that support and enhance the wellbeing of the older population in later life. One sad reality for many seniors in later life and an increasing cause for concern is elder abuse. Elder abuse is one of the most disturbing and rapidly growing areas of crime throughout the global. It is extremely difficult to exactly quantify the extent of elder abuse because many such cases go undetected and under-reported. The World Health Organization reported that it is generally agreed that abuse of older people is either an act of commission or of omission or neglect, and it may either be intentional or unintentional (Krug et al., 2002). It results in unnecessary suffering, injury, the loss of violation of human rights, and a decreased quality of life for the older person. Like any other form of domestic violence, abuse of the elderly initially remained as a private matter hidden from public view. It was initially seen as a social welfare issue and latter on a problem of ageing, but now has developed into a significant public health and criminal justice concern. The value of loving family institution has been tarnished by greed, position-struggle and impatience. Despite elder abuse is not entirely a new issue; it is time to find out the prevention ways to be implemented and effective interventions to emerge. There are a few welfare needs that will be highlighted after so that the young generation have a strong sense of love and care towards the senior citizen. Elderly Nowadays, Malaysians are living longer; they are on an average of 74 years for men and 78 years for women. In others words, their life expectancy has increase. With the advances in medical care and better nutrition, older people are living longer, they are more visible, more active and more independent than ever before and they are in better health. Therefore there is a growing concern regarding the global phenomenon of aging. A decline in the birth as well as death rates has resulted in an increase in the elderly population. Given that the elderly population is on the rise, it is of paramount importance to examine the care of the older persons. 2005 (%) 2010 (%) Total Population 26.75 m 28.96 m 65 and above 1.15 m 4.3% 1.36 m 4.7 % This table shows that the total population and the aged of 65 years or above in Malaysia between the year of 2005 and 2010. In 2005, the total population of Malaysia was 26.75 million, and which 1.15 million or 4.3% was aged 65 years and above. Moreover, in 2010, Malaysia currently has a population of approximately 29 million, and aged 65 years and above has increased to 1.36 million or 4.7%. With the projected population growth of 2% annually, it expected that the total population in 2020 will rise to 34 million, of which 3.2 million or 9.5% will be the age of 65 years and above. In the year 2035, the country is expected to have a total population of about 46 million of which 6.9 million or 15% will be the aged 65 years and above. This is evident that Malaysias demographic ageing pattern is emerging. Based on the figure showed in this table, the real numbers of older person have increased lately, which also means that the number of elderly will continue to grow over the coming year. As the populations of older Malaysian grows, so there has a hidden problem of elder abuse. Further, the number of elderly with chronic illness is likely to increase. This can pose an increased burden on their caregivers such as family members, and it could lead to a higher risk of elderly abuse. Elder abuse Elder abuse is a single or repeated act or lack of appropriate action occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person (Action on Elder Abuse 1995). The wilful infliction of injury, unreasonable confinement, intimidation or cruel punishment with resulting physical harm or pain or mental anguish, or the wilful deprivation by a caretaker of goods or services which are necessary to avoid physical harm, mental anguish or mental illness (1985 Elder Abuse Prevention, Identification Treatment Act). According to the Swanson (1999), elder abuse refers to the mistreatment of older people by those in a position of trust, power or responsibility for their care. This is a global problem that is likely to intensify in view of the increasing number of older people and the changing socio-economic and environmental conditions worldwide (Randel et al. 1999). Further, Hazzard (1995) described elder abuse as cruel and inhumane tre atment of the elderly. Kapur (1997) defines it as a kind of harassment or an injustice done to the elderly by the family members themselves. In fact, there is too many definition of elder abuse but despite this, most would agree with this definition an action or inaction by someone in a position of trust; often a family member or unrelated caregiver. Normally, more than two-thirds of the abusers are their family members and are typically giving their basic needs or care support such as food, shelter, personal care or transportation. In others word, someone who commits elder abuse usually has control or influence over the older person. The older persons often know and trust the abusers. Some victims of elder abuse depend on the people who hurt them, sometimes for food, shelter, personal care, or transportation. Therefore, the abusers could be their family members, friend; someone the older people relies on for basic needs or staff in group residential settings such as care homes or i n long term health care facilities. The Prevalence of Elderly Abuse in Five Developed Countries Country Prevalence (%) USA 3.2 Canada 4.0 Finland 5.4 Netherlands 5.6 United Kingdom 5.0 The accepted prevalence rates of abuse of older people are drawn from five community surveys carried out in developed countries, which are USA, Canada, Finland, Netherlands and United Kingdom. The prevalence of the elderly abuse in USA with percentage is 3.2%, in Canada is 4.0%, in Finland is 5.4%, in Netherlands is 5.6% and United Kingdom is 5.0%. But in Malaysia, the information and data of elderly abuse is scarce. There are no reported cases of elder abuse to the Department of Social Welfare as well as no agency keeps proper records of the incidence of elder abuse in this country. Although this epidemic is virtually unheard of in Malaysia, we are challenged to be aware of the many faces of elder abuse in our own society and this issue is much more common than societies admit. Types of elder abuse Elder abuse referred to an inappropriate action that causes harms or distress to an elderly which the older person has expectation trust onto the person. Elder abuse can take in several forms. Elder abuse may take form in physical, psychological, financial, sexual abuse, neglect and abandonment that cause distress to a person who is past retirement age. Physical Abuse Physical elder abuse is non-accidental use of force against an elderly person that results in physical pain, injuries, or impairment (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). This abuse includes not only physical assaults such as hitting or shoving but the inappropriate use of drugs, restraints, or confinement. The physical acts of violence commonly include slapping, hitting, and striking with objects. Indicators of potential physical abuse are broken bones, sprains, or dislocations, unexplained signs of injury such as bruises, welts, or scars, especially if they appear symmetrically on two side of the body, signs of being restrained, such as rope marks on wrists (Elder Abuse.com, 2009). Diagnosis may be difficult even at autopsy as findings may be subtle and invariably some chronic or debilitating disease would be present. The case of an elderly lady from a nursing home referred to the police for suspected physical abuse. Investigations showed that osteomalacia and spontaneous fractures could ha ve accounted for her injuries. However, recognition of physical abuse may not be straightforward, as injuries may be secondary to falls to which the frail elderly are more prone. Emotional abuse Emotional abuse is defined as the infliction of anguish, pain, or distress of elderly. Emotional abuse also referred as an act with the intention that causing emotional pain or injury which often accompanies physical abuse. This abuse may be happens in verbal or nonverbal acts. Verbal forms are included humiliation and ridicule, intimidation through yelling or threats and habitual blaming or scapegoating. Nonverbal emotional elder abuse can take the form of ignoring the elderly person, isolating an elder from friends or activities and terrorizing or menacing the elderly person (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). Therefore, an elderly person who shows fear, passive, withdrawn, low self esteem, reluctance to talk openly, insomnia, fatigue and listlessness or behave mimics dementia, such as rocking, sucking, or mumbling to oneself may be abused in the form of emotional abuse. Financial Abuse Exploitation of the elderly is also considered as an abuse which includes acts of material or financial exploitation. Financial or material exploitation is defined as the illegal or improper use of an elders funds, property, or assets (Elder Abuse.com, 2009). Elder financial abuse is one of the most difficult types of elder abuse to recognize due to its lack of obvious symptoms. Some of these include misuse an elders personal checks, credit cards, or accounts, steal elders cash, income checks, or household goods. Most common example case is the announcements of a prize that the elderly person has won but they need to pay money to claim (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). Besides that, theft of pension checks, threats to enforce the signing or changing of wills or other legal documents, and coercion involving any financial matters also consider as the example of the financial abuse. Indicators of potential financial abuse may include unusual bank account activity, sudden changes in the elder s financial condition, or worsening medical conditions due to lack of follow up or unfilled drug prescriptions. Exploitation may also occur in the form of fraud schemes; someone may persuade the elderly person to withdraw their life savings in a get rich quick scheme, or contractors convincing the elderly that the house needs repairs which in reality might be unnecessary. Financial abuse is one of the most difficult types of elder abuse to diagnose as the victim may not be aware of its occurrence or may not know how to seek help. Abandonment and Neglect Abandonment is defined as the desertion of an elderly person by an individual who had physical custody or otherwise had assumed responsibility for providing care for an elder. It also referred to the action of withdrawing a person or a thing entirely; putting aside all care for him or it. Neglect of the elderly is also a form of abuse and is often referred to the refusal or failure to fulfil any part of a persons obligations or duties to an elder. This may be intentional or unintentional neglect. Active neglect is the intentional withholding of basic necessities or care, while passive neglect is not providing basic necessities and care because of a lack of experience, information or ability. Another area to consider is self-neglect where older adults, by choice or ignorance, live in ways that disregard health or safety needs, sometimes to the extent that the disregard also poses a hazard to others. For example, the caregiver may be unable to perform care giving duties such as bathing or changing an incontinent elderly person. Therefore, an elderly person with unusual poor hygiene, loss in weight, poor nutrition, skin breakdown, unsuitable clothing, unsafe and unclean living conditions such as no heat or running water, faulty electrical wiring, other fire hazards and smelling of urine may be neglected either intentionally or unintentionally. Sexual Abuse Sexual abuse is defined as non-consensual and unwilling sexual contact of any kind. This includes all unwanted sexual activity, such as verbal or suggestive behaviour, fondling, sexual intercourse or a lack of personal privacy. Besides that, activities such as showing an elderly person pornographic material, forcing the person to watch sex acts, or forcing the elder to undress are also considered sexual elder abuse. Indicators of potential physical abuse are unexplained venereal disease or genital infections, bruises around breasts or genitals, unexplained vaginal or anal bleeding and torn, stained, or bloody underclothing (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). Sexual abuse usually implies a physical sexual relationship with an elderly person without that persons informed consent, though this is not restricted to sexual intercourse but includes other forms of intimate sexual contact. It is often difficult to establish whether sexual abuse has occurred, unless the individual has cognitive impai rment. Signs and symptoms of elder abuse Signs and symptoms of elder abuse should be taken seriously. It is vital that we are alert to the possible indicators of abuse. In assessing any situation, it is important to realize that an indicator may be present for reasons other than abuse or neglect. However, if a combination of the following indicators is present there is a need to further explore why those indicators are present. Increase awareness of abuse signs and symptoms as well as monitor the progress in suspected cases of abuse. Home care community nurses can play a critical role in detecting suspected cases of elder abuse. However, in Malaysia, we do not as yet have a health care system in place for such purposes, although these types of services are only now slowly emerging. Hence the only opportunity for detecting abuse is when the older adult visits a primary care setting or an emergency department. Characteristics of the Abused Elder Most victims of elder abuse are mentally competent and able to make decisions for them. Most of them able to taking care of their own health needs and do not need constant care. Although some victims of elder abuse are generally dependent on their abuser in some way, their dependency is not necessarily because they are mentally incapable or physically frail (Al Loney, 2006). However, if the older people who having mental or physical disability, they may be more vulnerable to be abused. Those at risk are most likely to be female, widowed, frail, cognitively impaired, and chronically ill. The older adults who poor in physical health, highly dependence on the abuser, functional or cognitive impairment and a living arrangement shared with the abuser are consider as risk factors for elder abuse. Normally, older women are more vulnerable to abuse than older men and are burdened with a lifetime of experiences and beliefs that may increase their susceptibility. In most instances, violence an d abuse against older women can be sexual, physical or psychological and also can include material or financial abuse and neglect. It can occur in the home, in institutions or as a result of harmful cultural practices that specifically target older women (Breatheinspirit, 2006). There are various studies have looked at factors associated with elder abuse. In the NEAIS report, females and those aged 80 and above were more likely to suffer abuse, family members were the most likely perpetrators and victims of self-neglect were usually depressed, confused or extremely frail. Other studies have similarly reported vulnerable elderly as those with physical and mental weaknesses, advanced age, women, those with previous abusive relationships in the family, financial strain and caregiver stress and burnt out. Characteristics of the Abuser The abuser is most likely the person with whom the elderly person stays with. More often, the abuser is a close relative; 80% being spouses and children of the victims, or a close relative. In some cases, elder abuse may be caused to abusers over use of drug or alcohol, history of anti-social behaviour, or mental illness problems. Abuse is more likely to happen when the abuser is going through a period of high stress. It may be the stress of looking after the older person due to old age is a time of weak health, low income, meaningless role, or the death of loved ones (Al Loney, 2006). These problems may be creating great unhappiness for older people and then damage the relationships with their family. In extreme cases, this may lead to abuse. Elder abuse often happens because of the abusers power and fully control over an older person. Family members who depend on the elder for financial, housing, or other necessities have a higher risk of become an abuser. A caregivers inexperience, a history of family violence, economic dependence on the elder or a blaming personality and unrealistic expectations often contribute to elderly abuse. The abuser may be lack involved in community activities, social services, and even contact with other family members. Besides that, they may lack of family support, facing marital conflict, overcrowding and the high burden of care placed on the caregiver. In most of elder abuse cases, the abuser may not allow people to visit or talk to the older person alone. On the other hands, staff in long-term care homes, such as homes for the aged and charitable institutions, might involved in abuse the older people in physically or mentally. Abusers are more likely to be staff members who are not able to do their jobs properly (Al Loney, 2006). This may due to poor of training, low salary, over-work without pay, or under-staffing. Besides that, it also could be the staffs have personal problems that influence their services to older people which under their care. But, there is no excuse for abuse. The personal circumstances or problems of the caregiver cant be an excuse of elder abuse. These problems may be factors in the abuse, but they do not try to recognize it. It is unmoral because the older people are fully trusted and relies on the caregiver, but the caregiver misuse the trust of the older people to do something that threaten to the older people. Common Reasons Elder Abuse Is Not Reported The actual and prevalence of elder abuse is unknown and difficult to measure. Elderly abuse exists in our society but it is seldom reported, and perhaps even less so in an Asian society where filial piety and respect for the elderly is traditionally highly regarded. This problem often remains undetected because of poor public awareness and lack of knowledge among health care personnel. This is because it can cause some adverse effects on the health and quality of life of the elderly. Due to their mental capacity, they are unaware of the help available to them. Therefore, elder abuse is seldom reported. In most situations, elderly are unlikely to report that they are abused as they are fear of embarrassment and fear of losing care support. They are mostly completely under the control of the abuser and depend on the abusers for food, shelter, clothing and health care. Furthermore, they also fear of harm by the abuser. Some of them are lack of awareness; they are only suspect but uncert ain that is abuse, therefore, the cases of elder abuse is hardly to report and also seldom reported. Risk Factors for elder abuse Abuse of older adults is such a complex issue with no single explanation. However, there are many factors seem to contribute to these critical issues and each case has its own unique mix of factors. One of the most obvious factors is the family dynamics. The habits, values, emotional and coping skills are learned early in life and largely through family interaction. In other words, if unhealthy or violent behaviours go unchecked, abuse may continue when roles are reversed.   Therefore, if a child who was previously abused becomes a primary caregiver, there is a probability that the cycle of abuse will continue and be inflicted on a dependent parent. Besides that, inability to cope with stress especially for those non professional caregiver such as spouses, adult children, other relatives and friends find taking care of an elder would caused many responsibilities. This may be extremely stressful to cope with the demands of elder care giving. As a result, the stress of elder care can lead to mental and physical heaths problems that caused caregivers impatient, burned out, and sometimes are unable to keep from lashing out against elders in their care. Next, problem of elderly abuse may also happen in the nursing home when the staffs who worked are those lacks of experience and training. This is because even caregivers in institutional settings can experience stress at levels that can lead to elder abuse. The nursing home staff may be prone to elder abuse if they lack training, have too many responsibilities and are unsuited to care giving, or they are work under poor conditions. Social isolation can also conceal and perpetuate abuse or neglect. An older person may become isolated due to physical or mental illness, or through the loss of friends and family members. Therefore, isolation does not just conceal abuse and neglect; it perpetuates the problem.   The result of this isolation can make it easier for an abuser to exploit, neglect or abuse an older person.  There is a significantly higher risk for elder abuse if without a caring support network.   In addition, if a caregiver imposes isolation to avoid uncovering the abuse, this is also a form of abuse. In addition, sometimes caregivers who are unable to cope with the long term care giving may react to the stress of too many responsibilities in appropriate ways. These unusual releases way are such as abusing, neglecting the older adults in their care. Also, most of the caregivers perception is that taking care of the elder is burdensome and without psychological reward. Thus, many of them choose to neglect the older adults. The societys acceptance towards violence can also be a form of factors in contributing the elderly abuse. For example the Canadians see violence in the news, movie and television shows. This wide exposure often leads to a general acceptance or tolerance of violence as an acceptable way of venting frustration or anger. Thus, this tolerance creates an environment which can contribute to abuse and neglect of older adults. The welfare needs of elderly Welfare needs are necessary for elderly in order to stop the growing elder abuse issue. The government, law and legislation, mass media, school education, health care providers, family and also elderly have the responsibility to give support the rights of old persons. The government The National Service Program or Program Latihan Khidmat Negara (PLKN) was established since started in 2004 as a response to the Malaysian Governments desire to inculcate the spirit of patriotism in the hearts and minds of Malaysian youths. Besides to develop the spirit of patriotism, it instils a spirit of caring and volunteerism among members of society as well as to develop positive characteristics among younger generation through good values. The three-month program is aimed at shaping young people into disciplined, independent and resilient citizens capable of advancing the nation. From this programme, the young generations could learn how to respect the elderly. Welfare pension should be introduced in Malaysia. If elderly do not have the ability to claim maintenance from their financially-able children, they have the pension as a security. It is seen as a way to eradicate poverty. The senior citizens are still able to take care of themselves in spite of they are abandoned by their merciless children. Abuse prevention programme could be introduced by Malaysian government as well. Its purpose is to provide and arrange for services to protect adults who are unable to protect themselves from abuse and provide older adults with information about their rights. For example, Abuse Prevention Programme (APP) in Australia which supports older adults who are being abused, or who are at risk of being abused, by someone with whom they are in a relationship of trust, such as family and friends. APP advocates work in consultation with the older adult, either directly, or with someone else the older person has chosen (their representative). APP can assist them to identify and understand the issues related to abuse of their rights as well as discuss information about options which they can implement to assert their rights. Besides, it suggests action they can take to stop abuse of their rights and give them with appropriate advocacy support that enables them to have their rights met. In addition, the government can launch adult day care programme, which it enables the caregivers to get time off during the day. Adult day care is a planned program of activities designed to promote well-being though social and health related services. Adult day care centres operate during daytime hours, Monday through Friday, in a safe, supportive, cheerful environment. It not just provides older persons an opportunity to get out of the house and receive both mental and social stimulation but also gives caregivers a much-needed break in which to attend to personal needs, or simply rest and relax. Law and legislation Malaysia law and legislation also play a vital role in overcoming the elderly abuse problem. Malaysia law can establish a legislative Elder Protective Act which is warranted to protect our vulnerable elderly from untold suffering. They have the right to live with dignity and security. For example in all 50 US states have specific adult protection legislation within which issues related to elder abuse and/or neglect are addressed. This legislation is influenced by child welfare models, and is characterised by legal powers of investigation, intervention and mandatory reporting. In the absence of federal mandates, states have been developing their own responses to adult abuse, neglect and exploitation. Legislative Elder Protective Act should be implemented by the government to safeguard the rights of our vulnerable elderly. Suggestion has been made for the government of Malaysia to adopt a law which allowing the elderly parents to claim maintenance from their financially-able children. This can be learned from the country of Singapore where the Maintenance of Parents Act enables parents above 60 years old who cannot support themselves to seek legal action forcing their children to provide maintenance for them. The government of Malaysia should also tighten the law and can used country of India as an example. In India, children could be imprisoned or fined or be subjected to both if they abandon their elderly parents. The Tamil Nadu government is set to notify rules for the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007, to help tribunals in each district decide on the order of maintenance for elderly citizens, who complain about being neglected by their children. Therefore, the government is committed to develop such services and formulate policies against elder abuse in Malaysia. Malaysia, being one of a few countries that uphold Syariah Law has Islamic Law that governs the welfare of family matters including the ageing parents, following the case in which a couple sued their daughter for not providing sufficient maintenance as what they have agreed. Elder abuse is a national problem with far reaching consequences for individuals, families, communities, and institutions. The state courts must play a critical role in addressing the needs of victims of elder abuse. The courts ability to assist older persons essentially determines whether individuals live their remaining years with respect and dignity, or are further alienated from the justice system with personal safety. Mass Media Mass media also plays a quite significant role in minimizing the problem of elderly abuse in Malaysia. The media was often blamed as one of the sources of the negative images of older adults in society. It was seen as important to work with the media to change these negative images, to raise awareness and to educate the population about elder abuse. They are able to inspire the public to be aware of this social issue by utilizing mass media such as televisions, radio networks, internet, newspaper, magazines, etc. Nevertheless the problem often remains undetected because of poor public awareness and lack of knowledge among healthcare personnel. Therefore, the print as well as electronic media are to play active roles to increase the societys awareness of the elderly. Media coverage of elder abuse cases can make the public knowledgeable about-and outraged against-abusive treatment in those settings. Due to most abuse occurs in the home by family members or caregivers, there needs to be a concerted effort to educate the public about the special needs and problems of the elderly and about the risk factors for abuse. Within mass media cultures, social issues such as elder abuse, have key reference points which can attract concentrated coverage of the topic and carry influential associations in public perceptions. For example, in USA, the Indochina Sino-American Community Centre  formed a coalition called Chinese Americans Restoring Elders, they used mass media to encourage the public to contact the Community Centre for matters related to elder abuse; provided some individual counselling sessions; and conducted a press conference and distributed brochures and flyers in Chinatown to commemorate World Elder Abuse Awareness Day. The television networks always played the advertisements that have the influence on the public over the caring of the elderly. Like the PESTRONAS during religious or cultural holidays (namely Aidilfitri, Chinese New Year, Deepavali) are often accompanied by touching advertisement that convey the message to show love and care to our parents. School Education Education is the cornerstone of preventing elder abuse. This education needs to start very early, in primary school. The students need to be educated to perceive to older adults more favourably as positive contributors to society. The elderly do not necessary mean burden to the family or society. With their wealth of knowledge and experience, they can still contribute to economic development and wealth creation. They have contributed to the development of the nation in their earlier years and they can still continue to be productive in their golden years. The students should consider senior citizens are an important and integral part of our society. Students need to understand the interpersonal dynamic of care-giving. For example, they need to be award of the value placed on the dependency and inter-dependency in care-giving; role reversals in care-giving; and how unresolved emotions between the elderly and the care-giver influence the care-giving process. The school curriculum is to include education on the family to enable the younger generation to understand and appreciate the elderly. They need to be encouraged to form closer relationships with older adults. The general population also needs to be aware that elder abuse happens and is a problem. Students need to understand the subtle difference between abuse, neglect and abandonment theoretically as well as operationally. The moral education teachers not just teach theoretically but also operationally. What is more, the schools should organise a numbers of the activities like visiting old folks hou

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Laboratory Class Eight: Brain and Behavior 2: Basic Unromantic and Function. Laboratory Class Nine: Revision Laboratory. References & Inspirational Readings. All research or teaching using people at the University of Auckland requires approval of the University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee. We have chosen the exercises carefully in order to provide you with what we hope will be an informative learning experience. However, if you are uncomfortable with any exercises we strongly encourage you to contact your tutor and ask to be excused from participation.It is much better if you are able to do this before the lab is underway. It is therefore recommended you read the manual to find out what is coming up before each lab and decide if you think any of the exercises may be distressing to you. If an exercise becomes distressing or uncomfortable for you during the lab, you are still able to be excused. Please be aware that you will only be excused from the specific exercis e of concern, not the entire lab. Please also be aware that you will not be able to be excused from parts of a lab AFTER it has taken place on these grounds; you must see your tutor before or during the lab.For Ethical concerns contact: The Chair, The University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland. Tell: 373 7699 ext. 87830. Completing Laboratory Reports Introduction The laboratory reports for PSYCH 109 can count towards 20% of your final mark. Therefore, students are strongly advised to put significant effort into gaining good marks for their reports. When preparing reports, there are a number of things students should know. This section of the laboratory manual is written so that the appropriate information is available to all students.The various areas of psychology taught in PSYCH 109 have a long history of research. An essential component of scientific communication is the requirement of conciseness and parsim ony. This means that when communicating experimental outcomes and conclusions (such as from an international research project or an introductory level laboratory in psychology) it is very important to write in precise was observed, should be given. However, oversimplification is not an acceptable course of action. Explanations need to account for what was observed: no more, no less.General considerations for Laboratory Reports ; Never exceed the page limit that is prescribed for an assignment, You will be able o answer questions adequately within the space limit. ; Ensure that you use appropriate grammar correct and spelling. Try to write clearly. Never assume that the marker knows what you mean. Remember that a marker can only evaluate what you have actually written – not what you meant to say in your answer. Plan how you are going to write your answers. Do not simply write the first thing that comes into your head.Write a draft answer that you can edit and revise before wri ting your final answer. Try and use short sentences. Two short sentences are usually better than a long one. Ideas can be stated more concisely in shorter sentences. Often, long sentences end up being ambiguous. ; Remember to proof-read your work carefully before submitting your report. Sometimes it is a good idea to ask a friend who is not enrolled in 109 to proof-read your work and check for clarity. If this person does not understand your answer, it is likely that the marker will also struggle to follow it. If it is discovered that two or more Laboratory Reports are exactly the same, the concerned parties will be subject to disciplinary action. Plagiarism of any kind is not permitted. General requirements To help you write laboratory reports that will reward your effort with good marks, he following list of important points has been prepared. If you want to attain high marks you will need to incorporate the elements in this list into your written work for these papers. Constructi ng graphs experience of drawing graphs before and a few of you will have your own ideas of how a graph should be drawn.These ideas may come from what you were taught at school or from the way you were instructed to draw graphs in other departments. Different scientific disciplines have their own codes of practice and communication. This is because the most concise mode of communication for one rear of science may not (and usually is not) the most concise mode for another area. Psychology is a science that follows the codes of practice and communication set down by the American Psychological Association (PAP), and the PAP has produced a set of guidelines for the presentation of graphs from psychological research.According to PAP guidelines, there are strict rules for drawing graphs. In this Laboratory manual, however, when graphs are required, the emphasis will be more on how to interpret the graphs produced during the experiments. However, graphs must be legible and neat, and must f ollow the general guidelines below. General considerations for graph drawing Graphs should always be drawn within the space provided in the manual. It is a good idea to draw a preparatory graph on separate paper (graph paper will help you here) so that you can make a neat, correct copy in the space provided.Graphs should be made as large as possible without causing cramping or squashing. All graphs should be drawn in pen (never pencil) and only one color is permitted -? preferably blue. All straight lines from which a graph is constructed must be drawn using a ruler. All errors need to be corrected either by redrawing the graph or, for a very small error, by neatly whiting out the error. Statistical Analysis in the Social Sciences Significant Differences In psychology, we are often faced with the question of whether or not the difference we see in two groups of data is statistically significant.A significant difference observed in the data is one that is so large that it's unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. For example, we may be interested in knowing if students perform better in an examination under one condition than another – say, sitting an examination in a well-lit room as opposed too dimly-lit room. We could randomly mom, have them sit the examination in their allocated room, and then compare the two group's examination results. There will always be a difference between the groups' average results and there are two possible explanations for this difference: 1 .Non-significant Difference The observed difference could solely be due to which students happened to be allocated to which room, I. E. , could be Just due to chance alone and nothing else. OR 2. Significant Difference The observed difference is sufficiently large that we simply don't believe that it's likely to have occurred by chance alone but that the level of lighting in the room is also avian an effect on each group's results, I. E. , this difference is so large that it is unlik ely to occur when nothing else (apart from the ‘chance' effect) is ‘going on'.Significance Tests and the p-value Sometimes the difference between two groups of data is really so large that, maybe with the aid of a plot, we can easily conclude that it is a significant difference. On most occasions though, it is not so clear cut and in order to objectively decide whether a difference is significant or non-significant we must perform a significance test. When we conduct a significance test, the most important value produced in the output is the p-value. The p-value is a probability, a value between O and 1, and it answers a question about the data: e. G. , â€Å"How likely is it, I. E. , what are the chances, I. . , what is the probability, that a difference this big, or bigger, would have been observed in the data if there really were nothing going on? † Interpreting the p-value Small p-values 0 a significant test result Large p-values 0 a non-significant test resul t If the p-value is small (less than 0. 05) then it is saying that less than 5% (0. 05) of the time (hardly ever) would we observe a difference(s) as big as this (or bigger) when toting apart from chance is contributing to it – it would be highly unlikely to get a difference(s) this big by chance alone. We say the observed difference is significant at the 5% level'.There are a large number of significance (hypothesis) tests available to use depending on the situation under study but in this course we will look at only one test, the Independent samples t-test. (Non-assessed laboratory class). Learning Objectives After completing this laboratory students should: 1. Understand the assessment requirements, requirements for pleasure, attendance acquirement, and assignment requirements for Psych 109. 2. Understand the hand-in dates for the two laboratory reports for Psych 109. 3. Understand the penalties for handing in late work; and the cut-off dates for accepting late assignments for Psych 109. . Understand where to hand in late laboratory reports for Psych 109. 5. Know the date and time of the terms test for Psych 109. 6. Understand what plagiarism is, and understand the consequences of plagiarism or other forms of cheating. 7. Understand the correct procedure to follow for raising individual concerns or course criticisms regarding Psych 109. 8. Understand that a Psych 109 student must attend their scheduled laboratory stream in the weeks that laboratories are scheduled, and that they must ensure that their tutor correctly records their attendance at laboratories. 9.Understand the procedure to follow if the scheduled Psych 109 lab cannot be attended. 10. Understand GAP requirements for undergraduate Psychology courses. Thinking. (Assessed laboratory classes). Lecturers: Associate Professor Tony Lambert (author of lab class). Associate Professor Doug Life (author of Research Methods lectures). After completing this laboratory students should 1. Understand t he distinction between an independent groups research design and a repeated measures research design. 2. Be able to use a histogram in order to explore and evaluate the variability in set(s) of scores. . Be able to calculate the standard deviation of a set of scores using SPAS. 4. Be able to perform a t test in order to compare two experimental conditions. 5. Understand the statistical nature of inferences based on the outcome off t test. 6. Gain an appreciation of the complex issues that may be encountered in considering possible relationships between experimental evidence and theoretical conclusions. 7. Be able to think critically about the relationship between experimental evidence, psychological theory and everyday behavior.Do men and women think differently? If so, to what extent and in what ways does the thinking of women differ from that of men? Judging from the enormous popularity of publications such as Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus; it seems that almost everyone has at least some interest in this question. In addition to popular publications of the Venus and Mars ilk, a substantial amount of serious science has been directed at answering this question. It will come as no surprise to discover that his work is controversial.Controversy over research into sex differences in thinking is apparent at several levels. There has been disagreement concerning the reliability of the findings: Sex differences have been reported in a number of published studies, but not all these findings been replicated successfully by other researchers. Therefore, questions remain concerning the reliability of results in this area. In addition to the question of empirical reliability, there is the rather thornier question of what the experimental question. For example there is of course the perennial nature-nurture issue.So if e find, for example, that men and women differ in their verbal and spatial skills, is this due to environmental factors arising from different c hildhood experiences and child-rearing practices for boys and girls; or is it due to innate factors, related to biological and relatively immutable differences in brain structure and function for men and women? In addition to this rather baldly stated dichotomy between nature and nurture, a third state of affairs is possible – that both nature and nurture contribute, and that biological factors interact with learning and experience in complex ways during childhood.One might also wish to consider the size of an experimental effect – although men and women may differ as a group on a particular cognitive task, there will also be considerable overlap in the scores. Clearly, the degree of overlap between the cognitive performance of men and women will have a bearing on the conclusions that can be drawn. The research findings of Hilary et al. (2005) Hilary et al. (2005; Behavioral Neuroscience, 1 19, 104-117) asked 42 men and 42 women to perform a variety of verbal and spati al tasks.Blood samples were also taken, so that measures of circulating hormones, especially estrogen and storefront, could be measured. This was done because one aim of their study was to discover whether there is any relation between hormone levels and performance on cognitive tasks. There were three main findings: (1) Females performed better than males on a verbal fluency task; (2) Males performed better than females on a spatial task involving mental rotation; (3) There were no clear relationships between hormone levels and performance on any of the cognitive tasks.In the laboratory exercise we will attempt to replicate the first two findings of Hilary et al. (2005). Obviously, it is impractical to look at their hormonal findings in PSYCH 109 – and even if we could, attempting to replicate their ‘null result' may not tell us very much. ) Our study, and that of Hilary et al. (2005) make use of an independent groups research design (also known as a between subjects r esearch design). As you will remember from the recent Research Methods lectures, an independent groups (between subjects) design involves comparing different groups of individuals.In this case, our independent variable (V) is sex , because the experiment involves comparing men and women with respect to scores on verbal and spatial tasks. Other examples of independent groups designs might involve comparing extravert's with introverts (independent variable is personality), or five year olds with seven year olds (V) is age), or left hander's with right hander's (IV is handedness), or anxious with non- anxious individuals (IV is anxiety), and so on. An alternative, and equally popular approach is to use a repeated measures research design (also known as a within subjects research design).In a repeated measures (within subjects) experiment the same individuals are tested repeatedly in two or more experimental conditions. An example of this kind of design could involve comparing the drivi ng behavior (using a simulator! ) of individuals before and after consuming varying amounts of alcohol (IV is alcohol dosage). Another example could involve asking individuals to employ and then comparing their performance under these different instructional conditions (IV is memory strategy).Each kind of design (I. E. Repeated measures and independent groups) has advantages and disadvantages which render them useful for research in different kinds of situation. One advantage of the repeated measures sign is that it is often more sensitive than an independent groups design. This is because each person is being compared with themselves under different experimental conditions. A disadvantage of repeated measures designs is that the results can be contaminated by practice and/or fatigue effects.A common strategy for eliminating or minimizing this problem is to counterbalance the order of performing in the different experimental conditions. For example, in the driving and alcohol exampl e Just mentioned, half the participants might perform the driving task in the alcohol condition first followed (several days later! By the no alcohol condition; the other half would participate in the two experimental conditions in the reverse order. Independent groups is of course the appropriate design in any situation where the research question is related to individual differences, such as personality or handedness.Independent groups designs are also often used in the clinical trials of medical researchers, where the effectiveness of one treatment is compared with that of another. Hence, our experiment will employ an independent groups research design with sex (female vs.. Male) as the independent variable. The experiment will have two pendent variables: scores on a verbal fluency task and scores on a mental rotation task. As you will remember from Research Methods lectures dependent variable(s) are the quantities or factors that are being assessed to see whether they might be r elated to (I. . Dependent upon) changes in the independent variable. How to carry out the experiment As mentioned earlier, our aim is to try and replicate the findings of Origin Hilary and her colleagues published in the Journal Behavioral Neuroscience (Hilary et al. , 2005). To do this, each student participant will need to carry out a mental rotation task and verbal fluency task. All participants will perform the mental rotation task first followed by the verbal fluency task. Figure 1.In the mental rotation task (see text) participants must decide whether pairs of shapes, such as those shown in A, B and C are identical or different. Mental rotation task Look at the top pair of pictures (A) shown in Figure 1. Are the shapes shown in the pictures exactly the same, or are they different? How did you arrive at your answer? Most people report that they solve this problem by imagining rotating the left hand shape clock-wise (or the right hand shape anti-clockwise), you ay be able to â⠂¬Ëœsee' in your mind's eye, that the two shapes are exactly the same.Now, decide whether the pairs shown in (B) and (C) are also the same. By using the same strategy, you might be able to ‘see' that the shapes in B are also identical, but the shapes in C are different – and remain different, whichever way you rotate them in your imagination. The drawings shown in Figure 1 are similar to those used by Roger Sheppard and Jacqueline Metzger in a classic study published in the Journal Science in 1971. Sheppard and Metzger found that the time taken to make a decision in this mental taxation task increases systematically as the angular disparity between the two drawn objects increases.These findings attracted great interest at the time, and continue to attract interest nearly four decades later. One reason for this enduring fascination is that Sheppard and Mà ©tier's findings showed that a mental phenomenon such imagination, which appears at first glance to be irredeemably private, subjective, and unobservable (by anyone else, aside from the person doing the imagining) can nevertheless be studied scientifically.Furthermore, their findings showed that one aspect of imagination, the mental rotation process, appears to operate in a highly systematic and lawful way. In the version of the mental rotation task to be used for this laboratory exercise, you will be presented with pairs of line drawings representing AD shapes, and will be asked to decide whether the two shapes are the same or not. As in the examples shown in Figure 1, the shapes will be presented at varying orientations.On trials where the correct response is ‘different' the two shapes are usually mirror images of each other. These features of the task make it relatively difficult! Do not be concerned if you make errors when you carry out this task. The dependent variable or this part of our experiment is percent correct; clearly the experiment would fail if everyone was able to perform t he task with 100% accuracy!

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